Karate styles – Traditional Okinwan Tode

The Okinawan martial art of Tode (also written as tōde or tode, and pronounced “toe-day”), or simply Te (手, meaning “hand” or “technique,” and pronounced “tee” or “ti” in the Okinawan dialect), represents the indigenous fighting method of Okinawa Island, which serves as the historical birthplace of karate. This art developed over centuries, influenced by various cultures due to Okinawa’s location between mainland Japan, China, and Southeast Asia.

Early History and Origins

The history of karate, rooted in Tode, began on Okinawa Island, particularly in the population centres at the southern end, including Shuri, Naha, and Tomari. These places, originally separate, are now part of the same conurbation. While written records about Tode’s origin are scarce due to centuries of secrecy and destruction, especially from the Battle of Okinawa in 1945, much of its history relies on secondary sources and oral traditions from karate authorities and contemporary witnesses.

Some historians suggest Te developed over five hundred years ago, possibly even more than 1000 years ago. It is believed to have been initially cultivated, practiced, and promoted by the islands’ royal government organisation, hiki, under King Sho Shin (1477–1526). The earliest known records of a karate-like art trace back to the 18th century. Another account mentions bo-jutsu being used by the Ajil around 1314, as described in Okinawa’s 1000 Year History (April 1923).

Socio-Political Conditions and Secrecy

A significant period influencing Tode’s development was the century following the Japanese Satsuma daimyo invasion and occupation of the Ryukyu Islands in 1609. This occupation, combined with a ban on weapons for Okinawan natives, created a fertile environment for the blossoming of Okinawan martial arts within the Ryukyus’ gentry, honing Te further as a unique self-fighting method and a predecessor of karate.

Tode practice became shrouded in utmost secrecy from 1609 until around 1903 due to the strict Satsuma edict aimed at eradicating Okinawan martial arts. This secrecy led the three leading te schools—Shuri, Naha, and Tomari—to go “underground” to avoid detection. As a result, te took on two distinctive characteristics: it became an esoteric art due to its secretive teaching and practice, and it became extremely violent, with the sole purpose of its practitioners being to maim or kill. This period of secrecy also halted written chronicling, making oral traditions the primary source of historical information. Techniques were passed from master to student through oral tradition, with little written down, partly to maintain confidentiality and partly due to limited literacy outside the nobility. Training often occurred at night, in hidden places, or windowless rooms, shielded from prying eyes.

Influence of Chinese Martial Arts

Chinese ch’üan fa (quanfa) (拳法; meaning “fist method” or “Chinese boxing”) had a profound and continuous influence on Okinawan Te. This influence is believed to have started as early as the late 14th century, when thirty-six Chinese families took up residence in Okinawa at the request of the Ryukyuan king, bringing administrative skills, crafts, and arts. Okinawan nobility and martial arts masters also frequently traveled to China to study Chinese boxing (kempō), especially in the Fujian Province, and Chinese sailors, guards, or military envoys taught the art to Okinawans.

The general theory is that an indigenous Okinawan fighting method called Ti (hand) merged with selected self-defence concepts from China and elsewhere to become Okinawan karate. It is believed that Okinawan martial arts experts, versed in Chinese boxing, “altered the existing martial art, called Okinawan-Te, weeding out its bad points and adding good points to it, thus working it into an elegant art”. This suggests that Te, with its core purpose of self-protection, integrated foreign knowledge and skills as improvements rather than being completely replaced by Chinese arts. The influence was particularly strong prior to 1600.

Specific examples of Chinese influence include:

The kata Chinto (possibly named after a sailor) and the kata named after military envoys Wanshu and Kūsankū were introduced in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
Naha-te, in particular, preserved Chinese kempō most obviously.
Some scholars note strong similarities between White Crane Fist from the Fujian region and some styles of Okinawan karate.
The term kempō (拳法, the Japanese reading of chuan fa) was likely introduced during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644).

Despite the clear influence, some Western sensei and authors claimed karate was initially developed out of Chinese ch’üan fa. However, the general consensus among many Japanese historians and Okinawan karate masters is that Chinese ch’uan fa is only partly responsible for the birth of present-day Okinawan karate, and that the indigenous Okinawan form of fighting with fists (tode) was combined with other Asian fighting styles.

Founders and Key Teachers of Tode

The history of modern karate in its formative stages largely consists of the biographies of prominent teachers of Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te.

Pechin Takahara (高原親雲上) (1683–1760): The earliest Shuri-te teacher of whom there is knowledge. He began his martial arts training around 1750 and had himself studied under the noted kobudo exponent Chatan Yara (北谷屋良) (1668–1756). By the time Chatan Yara was instructing Takahara, bushidō was already well-established among the samurai of mainland Japan and the bushi and shizoku of Okinawa.
Kanga Sakugawa(佐久川寛賀) (1733–1815) (also called Sakugawa Satsunuku): Often referred to as the “father” of Okinawan karate. Sakugawa started training under Pechin Takahara around 1750. Some researchers believe he also trained under Kūsankū when the Chinese envoy arrived in Okinawa around 1756. However, Gichin Funakoshi and Shoshin Nagamine contend that Sakugawa learned his karate by traveling to China and studying Chinese martial arts there, before returning to Okinawa to teach. He became known as “Tode” (Chinese hand) Sakugawa due to his extensive knowledge of Chinese martial arts. He coined the term karate (then written as 唐手 and pronounced “tōdi” or “tōde”) for the art he passed on. Sakugawa also reputedly gave Sōkon Matsumura the nickname “Bushi” for his ferocity and spirit.
Sōkon Matsumura (松村宗棍) (1800-1896, or 1803-1899, or 1809-1901): An incomparable master of the fist who perfected Shuri-te and is considered the progenitor of Shuri-te. His teacher was Sakugawa Kanga. Matsumura was born into the Okinawan nobility, and his scholarship and calligraphy skills enabled him to become an Okinawan government official. He believed in the unity of martial arts study, academic scholarship, and Confucian morality. Matsumura traveled to Kyūshū to learn Jigen-Ryū kenjutsu (the sword style used by the Satsuma samurai) and taught it to some of his students, further infusing the concepts of bushidō into karate. Matsumura’s teachings are the common ground for many contemporary karate styles, including Shōrin-ryū, Shotokan, and Shitō-ryū. His martial arts traditions were handed down to figures like Yamazato Giki, Kuba Koho, and Iha Kodatsu.
Higaonna Kanryō (東恩納寛量) (1853–1915): The leading proponent of Naha-te in the early twentieth century. Born into a family of lower Okinawan nobility in Naha, he left Okinawa in 1868 and traveled to Fuzhou, China, to seek a martial arts teacher. In Fuzhou, he met Ryū Ryū Ko and became his student, studying Chinese martial arts for about fourteen years. Upon his return to Okinawa in 1882, Higaonna established his karate lineage, which led to the development of several modern styles, including Gōjū-ryū and To’on-ryū. Higaonna’s style was known for integrating gō-no (hard) and jū-no (soft) kenpō.
Kokan Oyadomari (1827–1905): An important Okinawan master of Tomari-te, who was taught by Karyu Uku, Kishin Teruya, Anan, and Ason. His name is linked to specific kata like Oyadomari no Passai.

Emergence of “Styles”

During the nineteenth century, Tode was customarily referred to by the names of the places with which they were most associated: Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te. While these are often presented as distinct styles, there was significant interchange between practitioners from these cities, with masters often studying with teachers from all three locations. The distinction between Shuri-te and Tomari-te, in particular, is considered tenuous, arguably “practically meaningless”.

These terms were not originally “styles” in the modern sense but rather geographical references. It was not until the early 20th century (specifically 1926 or 1927) that karate began to be taught in a systematised way and organised into named “styles”. This formalisation was partly due to requests from mainland Japan’s martial arts officials and the desire to avoid offending them politically, especially by carefully avoiding references to Chinese influences.

Shuri-te (首里手): Considered the most indigenous style of Te, less influenced by Chinese martial arts. It was taught as secret knowledge among the Shuri nobility and based on the teachings of Kanga Sakugawaand Sōkon Matsumura. Shuri-te styles are characterised by quick and linear movements.
Naha-te (那覇手): The youngest style, in which Chinese kempō is most obviously preserved. It evolved from Higaonna Kanryō‘s teachings, combined with ch’üan fa and Okinawan/Chinese kempō. Naha te is characterised by more circular, close-fighting movements and synchronised breathing, similar to southern Chinese kung fu styles.
Tomari-te (泊手): Geographically and technically, it is considered somewhere between Shuri-te and Naha te. It shares many similarities with Shuri-te and is often grouped with it under the umbrella term Shōrin-ryū. Tomari-te also contributed to the linear and explosive styles, similar to northern Chinese kung fu.

In 1927, the Okinawa Prefecture officially divided Ryukyu Kempō into these three currents (Naha, Shuri, and Tomari-te). This division served administrative purposes and allowed karate to be utilised for official undertakings.

Transition to Modern Karate and its Legacy

The ancestor styles of Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te produced numerous offspring, leading to what are recognised as “modern” karate schools.

Key figures in this transition and their contributions include:

Itosu Ankō (糸州安恒) (1831–1915): A student of Sōkon Matsumura, he was the single most influential person in the transition of karate from a pragmatic and lethal combat form to karate-dō as a lifestyle of physical, mental, and spiritual development. He introduced karate into the Okinawan school system in 1901 and encouraged its adoption in mainland Japan. Itosu simplified Matsumura’s kata (e.g., Naihanchi), developed the Chinese corkscrew punch, and created the Pinan kata series (Shodan, Nidan, Sandan, Yondan, Godan) in 1905 to make kata easier for schoolchildren to learn. He also wrote the influential “Ten Precepts of Karate” in 1908, reaching beyond Okinawa to Japan.
Gichin Funakoshi (船越義珍) (1868–1957): The founder of Shotokan karate, he was instrumental in bringing Okinawan karate to mainland Japan, first demonstrating it in Kyoto in 1915. He trained under both Ankō Azato and Itosu Ankō. Funakoshi vigorously cultivated the new term “karate-dō” (“empty-hand way”) and changed the writing of karate from 唐手 (“Chinese Hands”) to 空手 (“Empty Hands”) to downplay its Chinese origins and align it with Japanese martial arts. He also used Japanese pronunciations for many kata names (e.g., Pinan to Heian, Naihanchi to Tekki, Passai to Bassai).
Chōjun Miyagi (宮城長順) (1888–1953): The founder of Gōjū-ryū. A student of Higaonna Kanryō, Miyagi traveled to Fujian Province, China, in 1915 and 1916 to research martial arts and visit his teacher’s master, Ryū Ryū Ko. He adapted the Rokkishu exercises into the Tensho Kata. In 1930, when required to register his ryuha (systematised fighting tradition) with the Dai Nippon Butokukai, he named his style Gōjū-ryū (“hard-soft style”), drawing inspiration from a passage in the Bubishi (specifically, “Howa Gōjū o donto su” – inhaling represents softness/exhaling represents hardness). He also visited mainland Japan several times between 1928 and 1931 to promote his style and secure its acceptance. Miyagi also taught in Hawaii in 1934-1935.
Kenwa Mabuni (摩文仁賢和) (1889–1952): The founder of Shitō-ryū, one of the four major styles of Japanese karate. Mabuni began training in Shuri-te under Itosu Ankō at age 13 and later studied Naha-te under Higaonna Kanryō. His style, originally called Hanko-ryū (“half-hard style”), was renamed Shitō-ryū in 1934 (officially registered in 1939) in honour of his two main teachers, Itosu (“Shi”) and Higaonna (“To”). Mabuni made efforts to popularize karate in mainland Japan, moving to Osaka in 1929.
Kanbun Uechi (上地完文) (1877–1948): The initiator of Uechi-ryū (上地流), initially named Pangainun Ryu. Like Higaonna Kanryō, Kanbun Uechi studied Chinese martial arts in Fuchou, China. He introduced his style to Okinawa and Japan in the early 1920s. The style was renamed Uechi-Ryū in the 1940s, either by himself or his students, due to the Japanese preference against Chinese references. His son, Uechi Kanei Sensei, later systematically developed and promoted the style worldwide.
Ohtsuka Hironori (大塚博紀) (1892–1982): The founder of Wadō-ryū. Ohtsuka opened his school, the Dai Nippon Karate Shinko-Kai, in Tokyo in 1934. His curriculum was a fusion of Shotokan karate with Shindō Yoshin Ryu ju jutsu, which explains many of the technical differences between Shotokan and Wadō-ryū. Wadō-ryū was officially registered in 1939.

Tode and its subsequent developments are now recognised as Okinawan cultural heritage. However, the art has undergone significant “Japanisation,” with mainland Japan claiming karate as a Japanese martial art, often without crediting Okinawa as its birthplace. This led to traditional Okinawan karate being altered to fit Japanese budo philosophy, emphasizing self-perfection and meditative athletics over Okinawa’s original self-protection purpose. Japanised versions implemented white training uniforms, belt and rank systems, and structured group training.

Despite these transformations, the “principle of never changing kata” is a core aspect of genuine Okinawan karate. Okinawan masters, like Nagamine Shoshin, have articulated concerns about changes to traditional kata and the development of sports karate without Okinawan input, stressing the responsibility of Okinawans to maintain pure traditional kata.

Today, karate can be seen as three distinct entities:

“Modern” sport-oriented karate.
“Traditional” Japanese karatedo, focused on form-only self-perfection.
“Classical” Okinawan karate-jutsu, based on form, principle, and application for self- and life-protection.

The legacy of Tode continues through these diverse forms, with ongoing efforts in Okinawa to preserve its original, lethal, and dentou (traditional) form as a unique cultural asset.